American History

Yalta Conference

Yalta Conference

Yalta Conference On 4–11 February 1945, Franklin Roosevelt , Winston Churchill , and Joseph Stalin convened secretly at the Black Sea r...

Salem Witch Trials

Salem Witch Trials

Salem Witch Trials The Salem Witch Trials (February to October 1692) comprise the largest witch-hunt in North American history. A keyno...

<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href=" " imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvxCXQs204vahPQDnrMrhv1V2ePbLZ7wu6ighQxrX57VmjQg_2vKtd38s5tcHOxkbl5BCrrSvIGvD1JJHQW-rPu-gPUfxR3Uj9z31UlSNOXjEnaZ0cbxTOP88ANDVPrAcCi6cBFTkoAS0/s1600/Skull-Bones.jpg" /></a></div> Including among its members both President <a href=" " rel="nofollow" target="_blank">George W. Bush</a> and Monty Burns from The Simpsons, the Skull and Bones may be the most powerful and most mythologized secret society left in the twenty-first century United States. Known as “the Order” to its initiates and housed in a windowless crypt known as “the Tomb,” the Skull and Bones is the oldest and most prestigious of Yale’s secret societies. Each year since its founding by <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="1258457822" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="4496fff97815b2057df2d4ba7e936ccb" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="William H. Russell" href="http://www.amazon.com/William-Russell-Smith-Alabama-Works/dp/1258457822/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=4496fff97815b2057df2d4ba7e936ccb&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_3496336" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">William H. Russell</a><img alt="Including" among="" and="" bones="" border="0" both="" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_3496336" its="" members="" president="" skull="" society="" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=4496fff97815b2057df2d4ba7e936ccb&_cb=1483257775692" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" /> and Alphonso Taft in 1832, fifteen juniors are selected, or “tapped,” to become members in their senior year. Given its almost frighteningly elite honor roll of members, and its long trail of rumors and exposés, the Skull and Bones has been said to run everything from the Bavarian Illuminati and the <a href=" " target="_blank">New World Order</a>, to the CIA and the East Coast establishment. But whatever conspiratorial designs one wishes to believe about this quite real secret society, the Skull and Bones has long fulfilled its critical role of, in Ron Rosenbaum’s words, “converting the idle progeny of the ruling class into morally serious leaders of the establishment.” <table align="center" border="0"><tbody> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0975290606/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=inamerican-20&linkId=5500c94d0c50bc451d41ddc1e6267059" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0975290606&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=inamerican-20" /></a><img alt="Including" among="" and="" bones="" border="0" both="" height="1" its="" members="" president="" skull="" society="" src="//ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=inamerican-20&l=li3&o=1&a=0975290606" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1508684502/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=inamerican-20&linkId=698afdb2812a5249a9673fba90c65e53" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1508684502&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=inamerican-20" /></a><img alt="Including" among="" and="" bones="" border="0" both="" height="1" its="" members="" president="" skull="" society="" src="//ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=inamerican-20&l=li3&o=1&a=1508684502" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> Secrets of “the Order” It is said that members are required to leave the room if they are ever asked about the Skull and Bones. Nevertheless, lists of its most illustrious members are readily available. They include political leaders such as the only president to become chief justice of the Supreme Court, <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="0700616748" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="610124cbfce8fec2bad64cfa4562be89" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="William Howard Taft" href="http://www.amazon.com/William-Howard-Presidency-American-Hardcover/dp/0700616748/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=610124cbfce8fec2bad64cfa4562be89&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_6631129" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">William Howard Taft</a><img alt="Including" among="" and="" bones="" border="0" both="" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_6631129" its="" members="" president="" skull="" society="" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=610124cbfce8fec2bad64cfa4562be89&_cb=1483257825995" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" />; Franklin D. Roosevelt’s secretary of war, Henry Lewis Stimson; and three members of the Bush clan: Prescott, George, Sr., and George W. Bush. Yale has long been the center of CIA recruitment, and a large segment of America’s foreign policy and intelligence establishment has been shaped by Bonesmen, including Kennedy’s national security advisor <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="0805090878" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="48f1887a613795810a837b4b874ce37b" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="McGeorge Bundy" href="http://www.amazon.com/Lessons-Disaster-McGeorge-Bundy-Vietnam/dp/0805090878/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=48f1887a613795810a837b4b874ce37b&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_1322714" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">McGeorge Bundy</a><img alt="Including" among="" and="" bones="" border="0" both="" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_1322714" its="" members="" president="" skull="" society="" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=48f1887a613795810a837b4b874ce37b&_cb=1483257850414" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" /> and his brother William, who was a leader of both the CIA and the Council on Foreign Relations; Hugh Cunningham, former director of Clandestine Services for the CIA; and Dino Pionzio, the CIA station chief in Chile during the overthrow of <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="0745333079" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="cad778e7da67ab838f845ce598f2cbd5" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Salvador Allende" href="http://www.amazon.com/Salvador-Allende-Revolutionary-Democrat-Lives/dp/0745333079/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=cad778e7da67ab838f845ce598f2cbd5&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_3145208" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Salvador Allende</a><img alt="Including" among="" and="" bones="" border="0" both="" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_3145208" its="" members="" president="" skull="" society="" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=cad778e7da67ab838f845ce598f2cbd5&_cb=1483257878174" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" />. Skull and Bones members continue to be connected to every “insider” and potentially sinister international society, including the Bilderberg group and the Trilateral Commission. In the world of business, the Skull and Bones not only operates several major investment and law firms including Brown Brothers Harriman, but their members include Averell Harriman, Dean Witter, Harold Stanley, and Thomas Daniels, founder of ADM (a large agricultural company). Other prominent Bonesmen include TimeLife founder and media tycoon Henry Luce and conservative pundit William F. Buckley. Although its membership has been overwhelmingly of a WASP-Republican type, the Skull and Bones was openminded enough to tap its first African American member in 1949; its first Jewish members in the 1950s; and includes among its members the gay, socialist literary critic F. O. Mathiessen, anti-Vietnam activist <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="0664233007" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="10282b060f7fb47de131f46a5d4ed379" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="William Sloane Coffin" href="http://www.amazon.com/Collected-Sermons-William-Sloane-Coffin/dp/0664233007/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=10282b060f7fb47de131f46a5d4ed379&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_1723348" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">William Sloane Coffin</a><img alt="Including" among="" and="" bones="" border="0" both="" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_1723348" its="" members="" president="" skull="" society="" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=10282b060f7fb47de131f46a5d4ed379&_cb=1483257937683" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" />, and novelist John Hersey (author of Hiroshima and The Conspiracy). The rites of membership are among the Skull and Bones’ most coveted secrets. It remains largely a matter of conjecture whether or not the tapped are forced to lie naked in a coffin, or what lies behind the “<a amzn-ps-bm-asin="B00OEK0ZXY" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="a9f0b1ebf816223eb49ab7456b4eec43" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Mystery of 322" href="http://www.amazon.com/Episode-322/dp/B00OEK0ZXY/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=a9f0b1ebf816223eb49ab7456b4eec43&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_8812876" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Mystery of 322</a><img alt="Including" among="" and="" bones="" border="0" both="" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_8812876" its="" members="" president="" skull="" society="" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=a9f0b1ebf816223eb49ab7456b4eec43&_cb=1483257976893" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" />” (322 is supposedly the society’s magic number, and also the number of the room that forms the inner sanctum). Yet stories of the confessional and intensely intimate nature of the initiation rituals have been widely confirmed. Initiation is said to consist of marathon sessions in which members tell their new brothers their life stories and provide, in excruciating detail, a complete record of their most private sexual experiences. The contents of the Tomb itself are also a source of mystery: it is widely believed that Skull and Bones possesses the skulls of Geronimo (procured by Prescott Bush) and <a href=" " rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Pancho Villa</a>, both of which have caused public controversy. Among the rumored perks of membership is a $15,000, no-strings-attached gift, plus a promise that members will receive an income for life. For fun and relaxation of the most exclusive kind, the Skull and Bones maintains a members-only island resort in the St. Lawrence River that is the site of their annual retreats. But more than their undergraduate bonding in the crypt, the real benefits of membership in the Order come after graduation, through the society’s vast network of connections and contacts within the U.S. ruling class. It is, of course, here that the Skull and Bones ceases to be an old and silly college fraternity and transmogrifies into what many believe to be a nearly omnipotent conspiracy. Barbarians at the Gates The Skull and Bones may have many traditions that remain secret, but this is not due to a lack of trying by curious and rebellious outsiders (referred to as “barbarians” by Bonesmen). The first “raid” of the Skull and Bones tomb occurred on 29 September 1876 when a small group, mockingly calling itself the “Order of the File and Claw,” managed to break into the “sanctum sanctorum.” Inside they found occult symbols, plenty of skulls and bones, portraits of the founders, and strange German slogans about death and such (from which <a href=" " target="_blank">John Birch Society</a> types have concluded that the Skull and Bones is, in fact, the second house of the Bavarian Illuminati). The second major rash of break-ins occurred nearly a century later as waves of radicalism and feminism swept over the Yale campus, leaving the impression that the Skull and Bones was simply a WASPish boys’ club irreparably in decline. John Pogue, the writer and producer of the 2000 film The Skulls, claimed to have infiltrated the Tomb during his days as a Yale student in the 1980s. And in the latest violation of its sacred rituals, a team of students armed with a night-vision camera and climbing equipment managed to capture videotape footage of the Skull and Bones’ melodramatic initiation rites, filled with shrieking and mock violence in which a member dressed up as George W. Bush can be heard saying, “I’m gonna kill you like I did Al Gore!” During <a href=" " rel="nofollow" target="_blank">George H. W. Bush</a>’s run for the presidency in 1988, Bob Woodward (a member of competing Yale secret society Book and Snake) managed to find several of Bush’s fellow Bonesmen who were willing to talk openly about “the Order,” including several (nonsexual) details of Bush’s life-story confessions. These members revealed that one of the two men who were killed when Bush’s plane was shot down in <a href=" " rel="nofollow" target="_blank">World War II</a> was a member of Skull and Bones, and that Bush grieved deeply for years with this knowledge. As the first oil baron turned CIA director to become president, Bush could not shake the establishment aura of Yale and the Skull and Bones, and during his reelection bid in 1992, the reactionary-populist Pat Buchanan accused Bush of “running a Skull and Bones presidency.” However, no such slights or loose lips could be found when it came time for the New Haven–born Texan George W. Bush to make his bid for the White House. In one campaign interview, George W. refused to publicly admit that he was a member and claimed not to know if the society still existed. However, it is widely rumored around the Yale campus that George W. had his 1968 class of Skull and Bones as guests in the White House shortly after the inauguration to thank them for their assistance and their silence. One can only imagine what they might recall from his “bright college years.” In 1991 another break-in of sorts occurred when the Skull and Bones engaged in a semipublic debate over the admission of women. Given the highly sexualized nature of the initiation rituals and the masculine bonding that members believe gives the Order its cohesion and loyalty, many members bitterly opposed the inclusion of women. However, the Bonesmen finally voted to admit women, with an as yet unknown modification to their rites and rituals. At the start of the twenty-first century, with a member in the White House, the Skull and Bones continues to recruit a mix of the well-bred (George W.’s daughter Barbara is certain to be tapped) with the most forward thinking and brightest campus leaders, thereby continuing to fulfill its self-ascribed mission of reproducing the U.S. ruling class.

Skull and Bones Society

Including among its members both President George W. Bush and Monty Burns from The Simpsons, the Skull and Bones may be the most powerful...

Assassination of Malcolm X

<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody> <tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href=" " imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="The" assassination="" border="0" convicted="" malcolm="" men="" murder="" of="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJ222kK6Dx8bjtgD-71j-XmysqtPYzZ6_4G2YzdtK4k125wdRfKoUgsftkGCPPJ2G43iCjBnyvZf47EWHQe8E7zp_8zLj_y__4XwXaQMgP2RM3W4P-ffY_HsAnFa43-9pVs-BtDi31y0E/s1600/Malcolm-x.jpg" subsequent="" three="" title="Assassination" trial="" x="" /></a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Malcolm X</td></tr> </tbody></table> Malcolm X was assassinated on 21 February 1965 at the Audubon Ballroom in Harlem. The subsequent murder trial convicted three men, <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="1270525727" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="0d2f2786b3e2e55788494dcfc5f47c8d" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Talmadge Hayer" href="http://www.amazon.com/Talmadge-Supreme-Transcript-Supporting-Pleadings/dp/1270525727/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=0d2f2786b3e2e55788494dcfc5f47c8d&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_1423629" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Talmadge Hayer</a><img alt="The" assassination="" border="0" convicted="" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_1423629" malcolm="" men="" murder="" of="" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=0d2f2786b3e2e55788494dcfc5f47c8d&_cb=1483257208416" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" subsequent="" three="" trial="" width="0" x="" />, Norman 3X Butler, and Thomas 15X Johnson. For most commentators (e.g., Breitman), Malcolm’s death left a number of questions unanswered. Not only did the trial fail to definitively answer who murdered Malcolm, it also failed to answer who sponsored the assassination. The prosecution team quickly assumed the involvement of the <a href=" " target="_blank" title=Assassination of Malcolm X>Nation of Islam</a> (NOI), and failed to track leads that did not match their assumptions. Focused solely on winning the case as they defined it, the prosecution worked with the circumstantial evidence they had without attempting to find hard facts or the real motive behind the assassination. To their discredit, the defense teams shared part of the blame; they failed to introduce evidence or raise questions that would seriously weaken the prosecution’s case. <table align="center" border="0"><tbody> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1782797017/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=inamerican-20&linkId=4f1505a7dd8a25d696b1ab34b693f05f" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1782797017&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=inamerican-20" /></a><img alt="The" assassination="" border="0" convicted="" height="1" malcolm="" men="" murder="" of="" src="//ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=inamerican-20&l=li3&o=1&a=1782797017" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" subsequent="" three="" trial="" width="1" x="" /><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0345350685/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=inamerican-20&linkId=f7136de0777c7c24f7efd14ca4214620" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0345350685&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=inamerican-20" /></a><img alt="The" assassination="" border="0" convicted="" height="1" malcolm="" men="" murder="" of="" src="//ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=inamerican-20&l=li3&o=1&a=0345350685" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" subsequent="" three="" trial="" width="1" x="" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> Proponents of various theories have since attempted to solve some of the questions left unanswered, by positing the involvement of not only the Nation of Islam but also other groups with possible motives and means, including the Harlem Drug Lords, the New York Police Department (NYPD), the CIA, and the FBI. Harlem Drug Lords Theory As a staunch and vocal opponent of narcotics, Malcolm often warned audiences against using the “weapon of the white man.” Based largely on the personal recollections of one man (Farmer), this theory claims Malcolm’s assassination was nothing more than a battle over turf, as Harlem drug dealers did not want him driving away customers. The weakness of this theory lies in the fact that most of the evidence is anecdotal, and that Malcolm’s antidrug beliefs did little to curb drug use in Harlem, which continued to rise steadily in the early 1960s regardless of anything Malcolm said or did. NYPD Theory Theorists who believe the police played a direct role in the assassination often cite the issue of the “Second Man” as evidence (Norden). “The Second Man” refers to initial press reports that police arrested two suspects, Hayer and an unnamed individual. Subsequent stories failed to mention the capture of two individuals, but never corrected the error of the first reports. Proponents of the “Second Man” theory argue that the second individual was actually a police operative, and as soon as the police realized this, all evidence of a second arrest disappeared. While the unexplained disappearance of the “Second Man” looks suspicious on the surface, others explain it away as a simple error committed by the press trying to meet a story deadline. The “Second Man,” say some, could actually be Hayer himself. One officer arrested Hayer, but this officer gave him over to two other officers for transport. The press might have questioned the first officer and then the other two officers, unaware that there was in fact only one suspect. Once they realized their error, the press corrected the <a href=" " target="_blank" title=Assassination of Malcolm X>information</a> in their stories, overlooking the need to note the reason for the correction to their readers. More compelling is the argument that the police played an important indirect role in allowing the assassination to occur. Although the police claimed to have a special detail of twenty officers guarding Malcolm the day of the assassination, only George Roberts, one of Malcolm’s bodyguards and also an undercover agent, was actually in the ballroom itself. The rest of the detail were supposedly stationed in other rooms of the building and in the hospital across the street. By keeping such a low profile, none of the officers assigned to the detail was in any position to thwart the assassination attempt. In fact, the officers credited with capturing and transferring Hayer were not a part of the special detail, but were simply passing through the area at the time. While the police may or may not have been directly responsible for Malcolm’s death, they were clearly negligent in their duties. CIA Theory Some have argued that the CIA viewed Malcolm as a major threat to national security interests. In 1964, Malcolm’s travels in Africa sparked the interest of the government, specifically the CIA, who followed Malcolm and kept close tabs on his activities. One of Malcolm’s objectives while in Africa was to garner the support of the <a href=" " rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Organization</a> of African Unity (OAU). His attempts to lobby the OAU to pass a resolution strongly condemning the racial policy of the United States ultimately failed, but some suggest these attempts were a serious enough threat for the CIA to eliminate him. While in Cairo, Malcolm suffered a case of food poisoning and had his stomach pumped in a local hospital. Although no proof exists that the CIA placed poison in his food, speculation surfaced after his death that the CIA might have been involved. Internal CIA documents since released through the <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="1480176389" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="024f413f4876a3a20fc609443acb86ee" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Freedom of Information Act" href="http://www.amazon.com/Citizens-Guide-Freedom-Information-Privacy/dp/1480176389/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=024f413f4876a3a20fc609443acb86ee&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_2732168" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Freedom of Information Act</a><img alt="The" assassination="" border="0" convicted="" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_2732168" malcolm="" men="" murder="" of="" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=024f413f4876a3a20fc609443acb86ee&_cb=1483257346824" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" subsequent="" three="" trial="" width="0" x="" /> indicate that the CIA had no direct role in any assassination attempts made on Malcolm X. In 1976, the CIA carried out an internal review of its files, and an in-house document dated 30 January 1976 concluded that the CIA only monitored Malcolm’s actions and never assumed any active role to stop him. Theorists question the truthfulness of such internal findings, but some question why the CIA would find it necessary to lie to itself eleven years after Malcolm’s death (Friedly). FBI Theory Malcolm X was still in prison when the FBI started its first file on him in 1953. He initially caught their attention when he claimed affiliation with the Communist Party in a letter. Although Malcolm was never a Communist, merely mentioning his involvement was enough for the FBI to monitor him as a security threat. Over the next decade, the FBI would collect thousands of documents in Malcolm’s file. Under <a href=" " target="_blank">J. Edgar Hoover</a>, the FBI was notoriously against the civil rights movement, which Hoover believed was a front for Communists. The FBI developed different tactics to discredit African American organizations and leaders, eventually beginning the Counterintelligence Program (COINTELPRO) to combat groups it viewed as threats to national security. Theorists point to two documents that suggest the FBI’s interest in discrediting Malcolm. The first is an internal memo dated 22 January 1969 that takes credit for the split between the <a href=" " target="_blank">Nation of Islam</a> and Malcolm X. Exactly how much influence the FBI had in the split remains unclear, but its role was probably minor. The second document, dated 4 March 1968, outlined COINTELPRO’s objective to “prevent the rise of a ‘messiah.’” The document confirmed the FBI’s fear that Malcolm might have developed into a messiah figure for the <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="1412999545" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="aeffa728d9488437474ae8cd486e1e8b" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="African American community" href="http://www.amazon.com/African-American-Psychology-Africa-America/dp/1412999545/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=aeffa728d9488437474ae8cd486e1e8b&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_6627842" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">African American community</a><img alt="The" assassination="" border="0" convicted="" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_6627842" malcolm="" men="" murder="" of="" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=aeffa728d9488437474ae8cd486e1e8b&_cb=1483257427108" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" subsequent="" three="" trial="" width="0" x="" />, but using these documents to show the FBI’s involvement in Malcolm’s assassination is highly problematic. No credible evidence exists that the FBI ever did anything more than attempt to discredit Malcolm (Carson). Nation of Islam Theory Although Hayer offered a surprise confession during the original trial, he did not indicate motive or identify the names of his coconspirators. His claim that Butler and Johnson played no role in the assassination was ignored. During the trial Hayer denied any affiliation with the Nation of Islam, but once in prison, he resumed his Muslim beliefs. In late 1977 and early 1978, Hayer offered two sworn affidavits, once again confirming the innocence of Butler and Johnson. With <a href=" " target="_blank">Elijah Muhammad</a>’s death in 1975, Hayer claimed he no longer felt it necessary to hide the identities of his fellow assassins, whom he identified as Brother Benjamin, Leon X, Wilbur X, and William X. The motive they all shared as NOI members was to silence Malcolm, the man dubbed by the NOI as “the chief hypocrite.” Malcolm threatened to spread not only the news of Muhammad’s adulterous relationships, but also the knowledge of the NOI’s rampant fiscal corruption. While the best evidence suggests that the NOI had the most plausible motive and was ultimately responsible for Malcolm’s death, no direct proof links the assassination to Elijah Muhammad or anyone higher up in the organization than the men who committed the crime. What is clear is that the harsh rhetoric used by various members of the NOI, such as statements made by Boston minister Louis X [Farrakhan], created a hostile environment for Malcolm, making his assassination a virtual certainty. Members of the NOI identified Malcolm as the enemy, and could easily infer that killing Malcolm was warranted and would be welcomed.

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Malcolm X Malcolm X was assassinated on 21 February 1965 at the Audubon Ballroom in Harlem. The subsequent murder trial convicted three...

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Pentagon Papers

<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href=" " imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHcO-vuT4x0t1yiHP7ROT6i5L0epvmUCSMTuLgz0MBGT4QYsDpD4b3vuGyngMvnFSLsf_sWjDqrQvJruAC-xQkH5uTc0buMTpWHhWfS61REXtfSTgeLs8ZWLRMi6JabpboDgQLRe9R6g9k/s1600/pentagon-papers.jpg" width="250" /></a></div> The Pentagon Papers was a forty-seven-volume Pentagon study into U.S. involvement in Vietnam. It was commissioned by the then secretary of defense, <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="0679767495" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="abf954e1292cac3d09843814bca2dd37" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Robert McNamara" href="http://www.amazon.com/Retrospect-Tragedy-Lessons-Vietnam/dp/0679767495/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=abf954e1292cac3d09843814bca2dd37&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_1186955" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Robert McNamara</a><img alt="It" border="0" by="" commissioned="" defense="" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_1186955" of="" papers="" pentagon="" secretary="" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=abf954e1292cac3d09843814bca2dd37&_cb=1483242555820" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" the="" then="" was="" width="0" />, in 1967 and it provided an in-depth analysis of events from 1945 to 1968. In effect, it amounted to a genuine “secret history” of the war, exactly the kind of document that conspiracy theorists have always dreamed of finding. In June 1971, the report became an important political issue once Daniel Ellsberg, a former hawk who had worked for the CIA in <a href=" " rel="nofollow" target="_blank" title=Pentagon Papers>Vietnam</a>, leaked it to the press. President Nixon and, especially, his national security advisor, Henry Kissinger, were incensed by the leak and their increased paranoia and determination to “get” Ellsberg started the descent into Watergate. Nixon was initially relaxed about the leak as the first installment, printed in the New York Times on 13 June 1971, seemed to be an opportunity to embarrass his Democratic opponents. It focused upon <a href=" " rel="nofollow" target="">Lyndon Johnson</a>’s 1964 presidential election campaign against <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="1568584121" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="dfe265fa5d4fe57718a91f3e6f59c648" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Barry Goldwater" href="http://www.amazon.com/Before-Storm-Goldwater-Unmaking-Consensus/dp/1568584121/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=dfe265fa5d4fe57718a91f3e6f59c648&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_220115" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Barry Goldwater</a><img alt="It" border="0" by="" commissioned="" defense="" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_220115" of="" papers="" pentagon="" secretary="" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=dfe265fa5d4fe57718a91f3e6f59c648&_cb=1483242589417" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" the="" then="" was="" width="0" /> and clearly documented Johnson’s deception over his Vietnam policy. However, within a few days the leak had turned into a flood as the <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="B000GFK7L6" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="1029eeb1aa78569f93b82151453bb09d" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="New York Times" href="http://www.amazon.com/New-York-Times-Daily-Kindle/dp/B000GFK7L6/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=1029eeb1aa78569f93b82151453bb09d&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_6591917" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">New York Times</a><img alt="It" border="0" by="" commissioned="" defense="" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_6591917" of="" papers="" pentagon="" secretary="" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=1029eeb1aa78569f93b82151453bb09d&_cb=1483242615083" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" the="" then="" was="" width="0" /> started printing pages of top secret cables from the U.S. Embassy in Saigon. <table align="center" border="0"><tbody> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520213823/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=inamerican-20&linkId=be6041cd1b6b105e8d08be34dcea5dde" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0520213823&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=inamerican-20" /></a><img alt="It" border="0" by="" commissioned="" defense="" height="1" of="" papers="" pentagon="" secretary="" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=inamerican-20&l=li3&o=1&a=0520213823" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" the="" then="" was="" width="1" /><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1596439521/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=inamerican-20&linkId=98a16cdef82dd21341509a7e92096957" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1596439521&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=inamerican-20" /></a><img alt="It" border="0" by="" commissioned="" defense="" height="1" of="" papers="" pentagon="" secretary="" src="//ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=inamerican-20&l=li3&o=1&a=1596439521" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" the="" then="" was="" width="1" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> The massive national security violation was clearly damaging the Nixon administration and it could have undermined Kissinger’s secret negotiations with China and North Vietnam. A number of foreign countries were also pressing for action to stop the flow of embarrassing reports about their roles in the war. The White House responded by starting an <a href=" " target="_blank">FBI</a> investigation and seeking a court injunction against the Times preventing further publication. A federal appeals court agreed to the government’s request but the Washington Post started printing extracts instead. A different federal appeals court refused to grant an injunction against the Post, and other papers, including the Boston Globe and the Chicago Sun-Times, started printing parts of the report as well. Eventually, a dozen newspapers took part while a Democratic senator, Mike Gravel, started reading the Papers into the Congressional Record. The Nixon administration pursued the case to the Supreme Court, but on 30 June the justices voted six to three against it. The Court found that the government had failed to justify prior restraints against publication and had hence breached the First Amendment guarantees of press freedom. Despite the Court’s decision, the government was still able to prosecute Daniel Ellsberg, who had been quickly identified as the source of the leaks. Ellsberg was then an MIT research assistant but he had worked on CIA pacification programs in Vietnam in the 1960s. He had also worked under <a href=" " target="_blank">Henry Kissinger</a> at both Harvard and in the White House—which further inflamed the national security advisor—before joining the Rand Corporation, where he had photocopied the papers over a number of months. Kissinger and Nixon became determined to discredit Ellsberg, whose denunciations of them and the war in Vietnam were making him into a peace movement hero. A cheering crowd greeted him when he turned himself in to federal authorities in Boston on 28 June. A grand jury had already been impaneled to investigate the leaking but the White House prevented full cooperation in order to cover up its previous misdeeds. Ellsberg’s lawyers were told that the government had no wiretap records involving their client but he had been taped fifteen times on one of the secret “Kissinger taps.” These taps were not run through the usual FBI channels and revealing the records of Ellsberg would have divulged the whole secret (and illegal) operation. Nixon also wanted to connect Ellsberg to a Communist country as this would not only discredit him but would also increase his maximum possible jail sentence. No such link could be found, however, and Nixon was convinced that this was because the FBI wasn’t performing a thorough investigation. (Ellberg’s father-in-law was an old friend of <a href=" " target="_blank">J. Edgar Hoover</a>.) He therefore ordered a White House investigation that was started by E. Howard Hunt, an ex-CIA man. Nixon also wanted action to prevent further leaks, so a new White House unit, which became known as the Plumbers, was formed involving David Young, Egil Krogh, G. Gordon Liddy, and Hunt. The unit soon decided that a CIA psychological profile of Ellsberg would greatly help to discredit him. Ellsberg’s psychiatrist had already refused to give his files to the FBI and when the CIA drew up a profile using the Plumbers’ material it was very short and superficial. The Plumbers, with the approval of the president’s chief domestic advisor, John Ehrlichman, therefore decided to perform a covert operation to retrieve the files. Liddy and Hunt organized it but, despite their men wrecking the psychiatrist’s office, nothing was found. No further such operations were carried out, but the Plumbers continued to dream up schemes to discredit Ellsberg, including drugging him with <a href=" " target="_blank">LSD</a>. They also persisted in pursuing the CIA profile and were eventually rewarded with an eight-page analysis blaming Ellsberg’s actions upon aggression against his father, the president, and Ellsberg’s psychiatrist. The CIA profile probably wasn’t used for anything, but the White House did use other material on Ellsberg. An article drawing together the left-wing causes his lawyer had supported was leaked to the press by Nixon’s “hatchet man,” Charles Colson, who later served seven months in jail after pleading guilty to infringing on Ellsberg’s right to a fair trial. Ellsberg, however, avoided a prison sentence as his trial collapsed in May 1972 in the midst of <a href=" " target="_blank">Watergate</a>. During the trial, Judge Matthew Byrne had been made aware of the “Kissinger taps” and the Plumbers’ break-in, as well as being publicly offered the post of director of the FBI. The cumulative effect of this government misconduct, he said, offended a sense of justice and, instead of ordering a retrial, he dismissed all of the charges against Ellsberg and his codefendant, Anthony Russo of the Times. Coming just after the resignation of Nixon’s chief aides, H. R. Haldeman and Ehrlichman, the trial’s collapse added to the air of crisis and corruption engulfing the <a href=" " rel="nofollow" target="_blank">White</a> House.

Pentagon Papers

The Pentagon Papers was a forty-seven-volume Pentagon study into U.S. involvement in Vietnam. It was commissioned by the then secretary of...

Pearl Harbor

<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody> <tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href=" " imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img a="" alt="Imperial" attack="" border="0" fleet="" harbor="" in="" launched="" located="" navy="" on="" pacific="" pe="" pearl="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIQ8yW-bKqRbdsZUFEfgLXLtDE7pDqMXsgLcWVqr9cLD3N6LV7YXC8spWxCpjugqUYLtmQjW9DSbkaLiRgnb_e3UJ_Eg4NzhPdSQ0WK7LA69Jr8qb_HeA8mIilJf_HmABYR1dSH__LX3Y/s1600/pearl-harbor.jpg" states="" surprise="" the="" title="Pearl" united="" /></a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Pearl Harbor</td></tr> </tbody></table> On Sunday, 7 December 1941, at 7:55 A.M. the <a href=" " rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Japanese</a> Imperial Navy launched a surprise attack on the United States Pacific Fleet located in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The theories and explanations of the events surrounding the Japanese attack on U.S. forces have become a cottage industry for historians of World War II. Questions about U.S. military involvement, and theories of how it happened and who knew what and when, reappear with each tenth anniversary. As early as 1942 opponents of President Roosevelt accused him of working to bring the United States into <a href=" " rel="nofollow" target="_blank">World War II</a> and using the Japanese attack on the United States as an excuse to do just that. The events surrounding the attack have been subject to multiple interpretations. John Toland, Robert B. Stinnett, James Rusbridger, and Eric Nave have been among those who argued that a conspiracy existed to use an attack on Pearl Harbor to bring the United States into the war and was the real reason for the Japanese <a href=" " rel="nofollow" target="_blank">success</a>. <table align="center" border="0"><tbody> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00003CXTG/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=inamerican-20&linkId=ceca7fee8079358bf8892272fad642fb" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B00003CXTG&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=inamerican-20" /></a><img a="" alt="Imperial" attack="" border="0" fleet="" harbor="" height="1" in="" launched="" located="" navy="" on="" pacific="" pe="" pearl="" src="//ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=inamerican-20&l=li3&o=1&a=B00003CXTG" states="" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" surprise="" the="" united="" width="1" /><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0805068031/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=inamerican-20&linkId=94feb4b68e8c5758540e3ef5773fc8aa" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0805068031&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=inamerican-20" /></a><img a="" alt="Imperial" attack="" border="0" fleet="" harbor="" height="1" in="" launched="" located="" navy="" on="" pacific="" pe="" pearl="" src="//ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=inamerican-20&l=li3&o=1&a=0805068031" states="" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" surprise="" the="" united="" width="1" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> Others led by Gordon Prange, Roberta Wohlstetter, and Henry Clausen have argued that it was a series of errors on the part of the United States that gave Japan its <a href=" " rel="nofollow" target="_blank">opportunity</a>. Since the end of the war, large amounts of information about who knew what have emerged, often providing more smoke than light. The attack caught a large number of U.S. warships in the harbor. The Japanese sank or damaged eight battleships, two beyond repair. They also damaged three light cruisers, three destroyers, and four other ships beyond repair. In the U.S. Navy and Marines, 2,086 were killed and 749 wounded, and in the army 194 were killed and 360 wounded. In addition, the United States lost 188 aircraft. Japanese losses were fewer than 100 personnel and 29 aircraft. The event shocked the United States, which had been used to the idea of security within the territories. The United States and Japan had become significant competitors in Asia prior to the war. U.S. policy in the <a href=" " rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Pacific</a> during the 1930s and early 1940s was perceived by the Japanese as hostile to their interests in the region. At the same time, Japanese expansion in the region was seen in Washington as hostile to U.S. interests in Asia. U.S.–Japanese relations were deteriorating throughout 1940–1941 and as the situation became more likely to move to a military solution, U.S. planners foresaw a potential Japanese attack on U.S. interests in the Pacific, especially in the <a href=" " rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Philippines</a> where the United States had a significant military presence, led by General Douglas MacArthur. The movement of the U.S. Pacific Fleet from San Diego to Hawaii in 1940 was done with a purpose as well. Its placement there was a statement of U.S. interest and intent in the region. Hawaii was a less secure location than California. There had already been a number of studies showing the possibility of an air attack against Pearl Harbor. The possibility was considered significant enough that on 7 February 1941, General George Marshall (U.S. Army chief of staff) sent Lieutenant General Walter Short (commanding general of the Hawaiian Department) a message informing him that “the risk of sabotage and the risk involved in a surprise raid by air and by submarine constitute the real perils of the situation”. Then on 5 March 1941 another message from Marshall informed General Short: “I would appreciate your early review of the situation in Hawaiian Department with regard to defense from air attack. The establishment of a satisfactory system of coordinating all means available to this is a matter of first priority”. On 27 November 1941 the commanders in the Pacific were sent what has become known as the “war warning” message. Marshall’s message cautioned of potential Japanese action “at any moment” and also informed General Short, “Prior to hostile Japanese action, you are directed to undertake such reconnaissance and other measures as you deem necessary”. In the navy message it noted the movement of an “amphibious expedition against either the Philippines, or the Kra Peninsula or possibly Borneo”. The use of intelligence has been a significant dilema in clearing up the questions around the attack. The United States had broken a number of Japanese codes including the “Purple Code” (the highest Japanese diplomatic code) and realized that relations with <a href=" " target="_blank">Japan</a> were deteriorating toward war. The most famous message intercepted in the last twenty-four hours before the attack was the “Fourteen Part Message,” which was itself of little intelligence value except that it showed the state of U.S.–Japanese relations. More important was the order setting the time of delivery of the Fourteen Part Message as 1 P.M. in Washington, 7:30 A.M. in Hawaii. General Marshall ordered that the information be communicated to the Pacific commanders by the fastest possible method. There is a discrepancy in the number of times Marshall was alleged to have sent officers to check on the delivery time, but he is known to have done so at least once. Due to atmospheric conditions the message was sent to Pearl Harbor by telegraph and did not arrive until after the attack on the base. There were other significant messages, including one from Hawaii to Japan laying out the positions of U.S. ships in the harbor. In December before the attack, the United States had access to information that the Japanese diplomats had been ordered to prepare to destroy their codes. On 6 December 1941 Colonel Bicknell, the assistant chief of staff, announced to General Short’s staff that “he had received information to the effect that the Japanese counsels were burning their papers .... It would at least show that something was about to happen, somewhere”. In spite of these successes, it needs to be remembered that the number of codes broken by the United States was limited, as was the completeness of the information about Japanese intentions. Thus, preparations for war were conducted with only partial knowledge. Another source of concern is the location of aircraft carriers. The U.S. Navy’s Pacific aircraft carriers were not present on the day of the attack. The Saratoga was in San Diego, while the other two U.S. carriers were off to reenforce forward bases with aircraft. The USS Enterprise had gone to Wake Island and was scheduled back to Pearl Harbor around 7 A.M. on 7 December, but was held up by bad weather, and the USS Lexington was on its way to Midway Island. The Enterprise was close enough at the time of the attack that its aircraft were able to make contact with Japanese aircraft. Their missions saved them for use in the important sea battles to come, Coral Sea and Midway. The Theories One theory argues that President Roosevelt knew about the coming attack, but was willing to sacrifice the aging battleships in order to give cause to the American people to fight the war. In order to do this, Roosevelt and the military command structure in Washington not only placed the U.S. battleships in harm’s way, they also sent U.S. aircraft carriers away from the site of the attack to protect them. Then Washington conspired to deny U.S. commanders in the Pacific important intelligence data that would have led them to assign a higher state of alert on 7 December. There is significant circumstantial evidence for this theory, based on the idea that Roosevelt needed a military disaster to enter the war. This theory does not account for the possible impact of an attack on other U.S. forces, or a successful defense against a strong attack on Pearl Harbor. It also does not account for Roosevelt’s love of the navy, which makes his willingness to sink ships less likely. This theory assumes that Roosevelt and the naval leadership understood that aircraft carriers would dominate the next naval war; the evidence for this idea is limited. It also assumes that the intelligence clearly pointed to an attack on Pearl Harbor. The challenge when investigating the subject is in separating the information that is meaningful and important from a flood of extraneous information. As one historian notes: “we failed to anticipate Pearl Harbor not for a want of relevant material, but because of a plethora of irrelevant one”. Without a message specifically stating an attack on a site, an analyst must interpret the message and weigh its value based on what they know about an adversary’s potential and preferences. It is often easier to see a clear meaning in a message with hindsight. Another variant of this conspiracy argues that the British government knew about the attacks and did not inform the United States in order to force it into the war. It is based on the existence of both British intercept operations, based on U.S. efforts, and British agents in the regions. The strength of this theory is that the British did have the <a href=" " target="_blank">technology</a> to break the “Purple Code,” which they gained from the United States and from the timely sale of British interests in Asia. This theory assumes superior British knowledge of Japanese intentions, for which the evidence is weak. And like Roosevelt, Churchill loved the navy. It was unlikely he would risk lives, or potentially the war, by allowing the U.S. Pacific Fleet to be destroyed. The Conspiracy’s Place in History There were numerous official investigations of the events around Pearl Harbor from the very beginning. The army and navy each conducted board and individual inquiries, such as the Roberts Commission, the Hart Inquiry, the Army Pearl Harbor Board, the Navy Court of Inquiry, the Clarke Inquiry, the Clausen Investigation, and the Hewitt Inquiry. In 1946 Congress conducted its own investigation and pulled together all of the previous efforts. There has been renewed interest in events around Pearl Harbor since its fiftieth anniversary in 1991. This has spawned a renewal in many conspiracy theories, but also created a growing interest in understanding the actual events and causes of the events of 7 December 1941.

Pearl Harbor

Pearl Harbor On Sunday, 7 December 1941, at 7:55 A.M. the Japanese Imperial Navy launched a surprise attack on the United States Pacif...

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